Method and apparatus for rate control for constant-bit-rate-finite-buffer-size video encoder

ABSTRACT

A method and apparatus for rate control for a constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder is described. Rate control is provided by adjusting the size of non-intra frames based on the size of intra frames. A sliding window approach is implemented to avoid excessive adjustment of non-intra frames located near the end of a group of pictures. A measurement of “power” based on a sum of absolute values of pixel values is used. The “power” measurement is used to adjust a global complexity value, which is used to adjust the sizes of frames. The global complexity value responds to scene changes. An embodiment of the invention calculates and uses L1 distances and pixel block complexities to provide rate control. An embodiment of the invention implements a number of bit predictor block. Predictions may be performed at a group-of-pictures level, at a picture level, and at a pixel block level. An embodiment of the invention resets a global complexity parameter when a scene change occurs.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No.15/074,227, filed Mar. 18, 2016, which is a divisional of U.S.application Ser. No. 11/681,492 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,414,078), which isa continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/552,761 (now U.S. Pat.No. 7,277,483, filed Apr. 18, 2000, entitled “Method and Apparatus forRate Control for Constant-Bit-Rate Finite-Buffer-Size Video Encoder”,having as inventor Stefan Eckart, and owned by instant assignee and isincorporated herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates generally to video encoding and more specificallyto a method and apparatus for rate control for a constant-bit-ratefinite-buffer-size video encoder.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Much technology has been developed to facilitate communication of imagesover media of finite bandwidth. It is generally desirable to communicatethe highest quality of images possible over a medium of a givenbandwidth. Thus, techniques such as video compression (e.g., compressionaccording to a Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) format) have beendeveloped to reduce the amount of data required to represent images. AnMPEG format includes various types of frames, including intra frames andnon-intra frames. Intra frames contain sufficient information toreconstruct an uncompressed video frame without the need to referenceinformation in other MPEG frames. Non-intra frames contain lessinformation, allowing reconstruction of an uncompressed video frame whencombined with information from other MPEG frames.

To increase the efficiency of the compression, the relationship betweenthe intra frames and the non-intra frames varies depending on the natureof the video stream being encoded. For example, if a video streamincludes frames that differ very little from one to the next, non-intraframes containing little information can accurately representuncompressed video frames. However, if, for example, the frames of thevideo stream differ substantially from one another, more information isneeded to accurately convey the video stream. As an example, during ascene change when the video stream changes from portray one scene to acompletely different scene, the image of the new scene generally bearsno relationship to the image of the previous scene. Thus, an intra frameis usually used to provide information about the new scene.

As can be readily appreciated, the relationship between the size of theintra frames and the non-intra frames, and even the frequency of theintra frames relative to the non-intra frames, cannot easily bepredicted. Added complication arises when the compressed frames are tobe communicated over a medium of finite bandwidth. While circumstancessuch as a scene change may necessitate communication of moreinformation, the available bandwidth does not expand to accommodate theadditional information. The buffers used to store information from thecompressed video stream during processing are of finite size. Thus,variations in a compressed video stream can lead to buffer overflow andunderflow conditions, disrupting the reproduction of the video stream.To accommodate the finite bandwidth of the medium, it is desirable toproduce a compressed video stream that occurs at a constant, orsubstantially constant, bit rate.

The visual quality of compressed video encoded by a constant-bit-ratefinite-buffer-size video encoder depends substantially on thecharacteristics of the underlying rate-control technique. To operateefficiently, the rate-control technique makes assumptions regarding thecompression properties of future frames (i.e., frames that have not yetbeen compressed). These assumptions can be based on analyzing thecompression properties of future frames in advance. While this leads tohigh quality and stable operation, it also causes an increase incomputational and storage demands that is not always economic. Also, theoverall system delay increases significantly because a frame can only beencoded after the future frames needed for encoding this frame havebecome available. Thus, it is desirable to avoid these disadvantages.

In addition to the accurate prediction of the compression properties offuture frames, it is desirable for a rate-control control algorithm toensure that the number of actually generated bits for the current frameclosely matches the target number of bits allocated to the currentframe. Since the functional relationship between the primary controlvariable (e.g., the quantization step size) and the resulting number ofbits is highly non-linear, iteratively encoding the frame at differentquantization step sizes is used to exactly arrive at a given number ofbits per frame. This is computationally expensive. Thus, it is desirableto avoid this computational expense and complexity.

Furthermore, it is desirable for rate-control to be robust. Whenever theassumptions, (e.g., the predicted compression properties of futureframes or the number of bits generated for the current frame) turn outto be inaccurate, finite buffer-size constraints still have to be dealtwith, preferably in a manner that does not greatly affect visualquality. Thus, it is desirable to provide such robustness so as toensure that constraints are met, and visual quality is maintained.

Thus, a technique is needed to provide rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder that provides thedesired features while avoiding the disadvantages.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a portion of an apparatus forrate control for a constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a portion of an apparatus forrate control for a constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 6 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 8 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 9 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 10 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant bit-rate-finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

A method and apparatus for rate control for a constant-bit-ratefinite-buffer-size video encoder is described. Rate control is providedby adjusting the size of non-intra frames based on the expected size offuture intra frames. Here, the size of a frame is the number of bits inthe encoded, or compressed, frame. A sliding window approach isimplemented to avoid excessive adjustment of non-intra frames locatednear the end of a group of pictures. A measurement of “power” based on asum of absolute values of pixel values is used. The “power” measurementis used to adjust a global complexity value, which is used to adjust thesizes of frames. The global complexity value responds to scene changes.

An embodiment of the invention calculates and uses L1 distances andpixel block complexities to provide rate control. An embodiment of theinvention implements a number of bit predictor blocks. Predictions maybe performed at a group-of-pictures level, at a picture level, and at apixel block level. An embodiment of the invention resets a globalcomplexity parameter when a scene change occurs.

Video data is organized as a sequence of frames. A frame represents aninstantaneous image. Thus, the video data may be thought of as beingdivided in time into frames. The frames may be divided in space intosmaller elements of the frames. As an example, the frames may be dividedinto an array of pixels. Frames may also be divided into groups ofpixels, referred to as macroblocks or pixel blocks. One example ofmacroblock or pixel block is a 16×16 array of pixels.

The present invention is capable of advantageously using compressionproperties from past frames (frames that already have been compressed)and, possibly, the current frame, rather than requiring compressionproperties of future frames. High quality of compressed video isprovided in accordance with accurate prediction of compressionproperties of future frames based on the available compressionproperties of past frames.

The rate-control features in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention generate an accurate approximation of the desired number ofbits in a single pass without iterations. Additionally, the presentinvention affords robust rate control.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a portion of an apparatus forrate control for a constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 1 includesreference frame block 101, motion estimation block 102, motioncompensated prediction block 103, uncompressed video frame block 104,adder 105, prediction error image block 106, preprocessing stage 107,discrete cosine transform (DCT) block 108, quantization block 109,variable length coding (VLC) block 110, video buffer verifier (VBV) 111,rate control 112, and complexity estimator 113.

Reference frame block 101 provides reference frames 114 and 115 tomotion estimation block 102. Uncompressed video frame block 104 providesuncompressed video frames 118, 119, and 120 to motion estimation block102, to adder 105, and to preprocessing stage 107. Preprocessing stage107 determines a power value 121 and a local activity value 122. In oneembodiment, the preprocessing stage 107 updates the power value for eachsubsequent picture or frame being encoded.

Motion estimation block 102 provides a motion estimate 116 to motioncompensated prediction block 103. Motion compensated prediction block103 provides a pixel block type indication 117. Motion compensatedprediction block 103 also provides a motion compensated prediction frame134 as a negative input to adder 105. Adder 105 subtracts the motioncompensated prediction frame 134 from the uncompensated video frame 119and provides the result 123 to prediction error image block 106.

Prediction error image block 106 provides a prediction error image 124to DCT block 108. Prediction error image block 106 also determines whena scene change occurs and provides a scene change indication 125 tocomplexity estimator 113. Prediction image block 106 further provides L1distances 126. The L1 distances represent a power measurement at thepixel block level that may be obtained by summing the absolutedifferences within a pixel block.

DCT block 108 provides a DCT result 127 to quantization block 109.Quantization block 109 performs quantization according to a quantizerstep size, referred to as mquant, and provides a result 128 to VLC block110. VLC block 110 provides an MPEG bit stream 129, which is fed back tocomplexity estimator 113 and VBV 111.

VBV 111 provides a VBV fullness output 130 to rate control block 112.Rate control block 112 provides quantizer step size 131 to quantizationblock 109 and to complexity estimator 113. Complexity estimator 113 iscoupled to the prediction error image block 106 and provides a globalcomplexity 132 and pixel block complexities 133. The pixel blockcomplexities 133 include non-intra pixel block complexity values andintra pixel block complexity values. The complexity estimator 113 resetsa global complexity value upon receipt of the scene change indication

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a portion of an apparatus forrate control for a constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 includesgroup-of-pictures-level (GOP-level) rate control 201, picture-level ratecontrol 202, pixel-block-level rate control 203, adder 204, andnumber-of-bit predictor 205. GOP-level rate control 201 is operativelycoupled to the preprocessing stage to receive the power value 121 andglobal complexity 132 and provides a target quantizer step size 206 usedto provide rate control for the video encoder to picture-level ratecontrol 202. The group-of-pictures-level rate control block causes anadjustment of sizes of non-intra frames based on the expected sizes offuture intra frames.

The picture-level rate control block 202 is operatively coupled to theprediction error image block to receive the L1 distances 126. Thepicture-level rate control block 202 also receives VBV fullness output130, pixel block complexities 133, and pixel block type 117 and providesa target quantizer step size for a pixel block to pixel-block-level ratecontrol block 203 and to number-of-bit predictor block 205.

Number-of-bit-predictor block 205 receives L1 distances 126, pixel blockcomplexities 133, and pixel block type 117, as well as picture-levelrate control output 207. The number-of-bit predictor predicts a numberof bits generated by the video encoder. Number-of-bit predictor block205 provides a number-of-bit prediction output to adder 204. MPEG stream129 is provided to a number-of-bit counter 210. The number-of-bitcounter 210 provides an output 211 that is received by adder 204 as anegative input. Adder 204 subtracts output 211 from number-of-bitprediction output 208 and provides the result 209 to pixel-block-levelrate control block 203. Pixel-block-level rate control block 203receives local activity 122. Pixel-block-level rate control block 203also receives L1 distances 126. Pixel-block-level rate control block 203provides quantizer step size 131.

FIG. 3 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. A sliding window approach is used withrespect to the GOP being processed. The sliding window approach avoidswide variations in rate control adjustments dependent upon the locationof a frame (or picture) in a GOP.

The method begins in step 301 and continues to step 302. In step 302, afirst quantizer step size is calculated such that a first number of bitsgenerated at an output of the constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size videoencoder is constant over a first given number of frames (e.g., GOP)starting at a current frame. In step 303, the current frame isincremented. In step 304, a second quantizer step size is calculatedsuch that a second number of bits generated at the output of theconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder is constant over asecond given number of frames starting at the incremented current frame.Thus, a full GOP is considered for each frame processed, rather thanconsidering only those frames remaining in a static GOP or waiting untila second static GOP following the first static GOP is processed.

FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. The method begins in step 401. In step 402,a power value is calculated by calculating the sum of absolute values ofpixel values over a first frame. Step 402 may include steps 403, 404,and 405. In step 403, an average value of the pixel values in each of aplurality of pixel blocks (e.g., macroblocks) within the first frame iscalculated. In step 404, for each of the plurality of pixel blocks, asum of absolute differences between the pixel values in the respectivepixel block and the average value is calculated. This step may berepeated for all pixel blocks in the picture (e.g., frame). In step 405,each sum of the absolute differences for each of the plurality of pixelblocks within the first frame are added to obtain a power value for thefirst frame.

From step 402, the method continues to step 406. In step 406, a numberof bits in a second frame are adjusted based on the sum of the absolutevalues of pixel values. The method ends in step 407.

FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. A power value may be used to adjust aglobal complexity, which may be expressed as Xi. The method begins instep 501. In step 502, a reference global complexity is calculated foreach intra frame encoded. In step 503, a reference power value iscalculated for each intra frame encoded.

In step 504, a power value is calculated for subsequent frames. In step505, a global complexity is calculated by multiplying the referenceglobal complexity by the power value and dividing by the reference powervalue. In step 506, the global complexity is used to adjust a framesize. The method ends in step 507.

FIG. 6 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. The method begins in step 601. In step 602,a prediction error frame including a plurality of pixel-level errorvalues is obtained. In step 603, a sum of absolute values of thepixel-level error values for a pixel block is calculated.

In step 604, an expected number of bits for the pixel block iscalculated based on the sum of the absolute values, which may beexpressed as pmb. Step 604 may include steps 605 and 607 and/or step608. In step 605, an expected number of bits for a frame in which thepixel block is located is calculated. Step 605 may also include step606. In step 606, the expected number of bits for the pixel block aresummed for all pixel blocks in the frame. In step 608, for each pixelblock in the frame, a pixel block complexity value is multiplied by thesum of the absolute values of the pixel-level error values for the pixelblock and dividing by a target quantizer step size for the frame. Instep 607, the expected number of bits for the frame is used to obtainconstant-bit-rate video encoding. In step 609, the expected number ofbits for the pixel block is used to obtain constant-bit-rate videoencoding. The process ends in step 610. L1 distances may be usefullyemployed in accordance with the method set forth above.

FIG. 7 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. The method starts in step 701. In step 702,a relationship between a quantizer scale factor and a number of encodedbits of a pixel block is predicted based on a known relationship inprevious pixel blocks of a same type. Step 702 may also include steps703 and 704. In step 703, a first relationship between the quantizerscale factor and a first number of encoded bits of a first type of pixelblock is predicted based on a first known relationship in previous pixelblocks of the first type. In step 704, a second relationship between thequantizer scale factor and a second number of encoded bits of a secondtype of pixel block is predicted based on a second known relationship inprevious pixel blocks of the second type. As an example, thesesrelationships may be pixel block complexities. As can be seen, separatepixel block complexities may be determined for intra frame pixel blocksand for non-intra frame pixel blocks.

From step 702, the process continues to step 705. In step 705, thequantizer scale factor is used to control a pixel block level rate ofthe video encoder. Step 705 may include step 706. In step 706, thequantizer scale factor is used together with L1 distances to control thepixel block level rate of the video encoder. In step 707, the methodends.

FIG. 8 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. The method begins in step 801. In step 802,a group-of-pictures-level prediction for a number of bits encoded for agroup of pictures is calculated. Step 802 may include step 803. In step803, the group-of-pictures-level prediction for the number of bitsencoded for the group-of-pictures is calculated based on a globalcomplexity value.

From step 802, the method continues in step 804. In step 804, apicture-level prediction for a number of bits encoded for a picture iscalculated. Step 804 may include step 805. In step 805, thepicture-level prediction for the number of bits encoded for the pictureis calculated based on a pixel block type, an L1 distance, and a pixelblock complexity.

From step 804, the method continues to step 806. In step 806, apixel-block-level prediction for a number of bits encoded for a pixelblock is calculated. Step 806 may include step 807. In step 807, thepixel-block-level prediction for the number of bits encoded for thepixel block is calculated based on a local activity value.

From step 806, the method continues to step 808. In step 808, thegroup-of-pictures-level prediction, the picture-level prediction, andthe pixel-block-level prediction are used to adjust a quantizer scalefactor to provide the rate control for the video encoder. The methodends in step 809. Thus, the method utilizes prediction of a number ofbits at the GOP level, the picture (e.g., frame) level, and the pixelblock (e.g., macroblock) level to achieve higher accuracy in predictionand more effective rate control.

FIG. 9 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. The method begins in step 901. In step 902,a scene change indication is obtained from a prediction error image.This may be done, for example, by looking at the ratio between intra andnon-intra coded macroblocks. From step 902, the method continues to step903. In step 903, the scene change indication is used to reset a globalcomplexity history (e.g., Xipb). From step 903, the method continues tostep 904. In step 904, the global complexity history is used to providethe rate control for the video encoder.

FIG. 10 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for rate control for aconstant bit-rate-finite-buffer-size video encoder in accordance with anembodiment of the invention. The method begins in step 1001. In step1002, a prediction for a number of bits encoded for a pixel block iscalculated based on an L1 distance, a pixel block complexity, and aquantizer scale factor. In step 1003, the prediction is used foradjusting the quantizer scale factor (e.g., mquant) to meet a targetedpicture-level number of bits. The method ends in step 1004.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the rate controlprocess is organized hierarchically as follows:

-   -   GOP level: distributes bits to I, P and B pictures based on the        GOP structure (IBP pattern) and the statistical properties of        the individual picture types    -   picture level: calculates the target bit allocation and mquant        for the next picture based on statistical properties of that        particular picture    -   macroblock level: adjusts mquant to meet the target bit        allocation (optional)        In addition, the rate control handles the following tasks:    -   VBV compliance (bitrate adjustment, emergency quant mode, bit        stuffing)    -   psychovisual masking (spatial activity based mquant modulation)    -   estimation of various rate control parameters (adaptive rate        control algorithm)

GOP Level Rate Control

The proportion of bits allocated to a picture depends on its picturetype (I, P, or B). The allocation is based on the goal of achievingfixed mquant ratios as follows:

mquant_(I) /mquant_(P) /mquant_(B) =K _(I) /K _(P) /K _(B)  (1)

or, equivalently:

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{{mquant}_{ipb}}{K_{ipb}} = {\frac{1}{c} = {const}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

Throughout this document an index of ipb can have one of the values I,P, or B and indicates a picture type specific entity. In (2), c is aconstant that depends on the bitrate and frame statistics.

The relationship between the mquant (or quantiser_scale) value used forencoding a frame and the resulting number of bits is complex and theonly way to accurately calculate it is by actually encoding the frame atthe given mquant value. For the purpose of rate control a highlysimplified model is used instead as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{R_{ipb} = {X_{ipb}\frac{1}{{mquant}_{ipb}}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

An inverse proportional relationship is assumed between mquant andR_(ipb), the number of bits per frame (or bitrate). In this document,all bitrates are expressed as bits per frame instead of bits per second,therefore the terms bits per frame and bitrate are used interchangeably.

X_(ipb) denotes global (coding) complexity and characterizes theencoding process and its dependency on the frame content. In practice,X_(ipb) is a function of mquant but rate control assumes it to beconstant. X_(ipb) is determined by parameter estimation as describedlater (cf. (27) and (31)).

Combing (2) and (3) results in

$\begin{matrix}{R_{ipb} = {c\frac{X_{ipb}}{K_{ipb}}{cX}_{ipb}^{\prime}}} & (4)\end{matrix}$

where X′ is a short notation for X/K (normalized complexity). Theaverage bitrate R for an entire GOP can be calculated as

$\begin{matrix}{R = {\frac{\sum\limits_{ipb}\; {N_{ipb}R_{ipb}}}{\sum\limits_{ipb}\; N_{ipb}} = \frac{\sum\limits_{ipb}\; {N_{ipb}R_{ipb}}}{N}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

where N_(ipb) is the number of frames of a particular type in a GOP, andN is the total number of frames per GOP. For example, the typical caseof IBBPBBPBBPBBPBB corresponds to N=15, N_(I)=N_(P)=4, N_(B)=10.

Substituting (4) into (5):

$\begin{matrix}{R = {c\frac{\sum\; {N_{ipb}X_{ipb}^{\prime}}}{N}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

and solving for c:

$\begin{matrix}{c = \frac{NR}{\sum\; {N_{ipb}X_{ipb}^{\prime}}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

allows to calculate the individual R_(ipb) values (using (4)) as afunction of the complexities X and the average bitrate R:

$\begin{matrix}{R_{ipb} = \frac{{NRX}_{ipb}^{\prime}}{\sum\; {N_{ipb}X_{ipb}^{\prime}}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$

(Note that if

$\frac{\sum\; {N_{ipb}X_{ipb}^{\prime}}}{N}$

is interpreted as average GOP complexity X_(GOP)′, (8) simplifies to

$ {\frac{R_{ipb}}{R} = {\frac{X_{ipb}^{\prime}}{X_{GOP}^{\prime}}.}} )$

Normalized VBV Fullness

As a prerequisite for deriving the GOP level bitrate control equation,this section defines the concept of an actual and a normalized VBVfullness and their relationship. This is based on the observation thatthe difference between an expected actual VBV fullness and the currentactual VBV fullness has a component that depends on the complexities,GOP structure, bitrate differences and position in the GOP pattern,which is undesirable. Introducing the concept of a normalized VBVfullness removes these dependencies.

The normalized VBV fullness is defined as the number of bits in the VBVif every frame would have been allocated the average number of bits perframe R, whereas the actual VBV fullness is based on allocating bitsaccording to (8). The actual VBV fullness for the M'th frame (note thatthis M is not the I/P frame distance used in defining GOP patterns) in aGOP can be expressed as:

$\begin{matrix}{E_{R,M} = {{E_{R,0} + {MR}_{0} - {\sum\limits_{k = 0}^{M - 1}\; R_{{ipb}{(k)}}}} = {E_{R,0} + {MR}_{0} - {\sum\limits_{ipb}{M_{ipb}R_{ipb}}}}}} & (9)\end{matrix}$

Here, E_(R,0) is the VBV fullness the start of the GOP, R₀ is theconstant bitrate of the VBV buffer model (i.e. the bit_rate parameter inthe sequence header of the MPEG stream, converted from bits per secondto bits per frame), M_(ipb) is the number of I, P, and B frames,respectively, in the current GOP up to, but not including the current(M'th) frame, and ipb(k) is the picture type of the k'th frame.The normalized VBV fullness is simply:

Ē _(R,M) =E _(R,0) +M(R ₀ −R)  (10)

It increases or decreases linearly over time and is constant if theaverage bitrate matches the nominal bitrate of the stream.

Subtracting (9) from (10) allows conversion between actual andnormalized buffer fullness:

Ē _(R,M) =E _(R,M) +ΣM _(ipb) R _(ipb) −MR  (11)

Introducing the fraction of bits per GOP spent up to, but not including,the M'th frame, σ_(M):

$\begin{matrix}{\sigma_{M} = \frac{\sum{M_{ipb}R_{ipb}}}{NR}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

and the normalized difference between the actual and normalizedallocation, δ_(M):

$\begin{matrix}{\delta_{M} = {\frac{{\sum{M_{ipb}R_{ipb}}} - {MR}}{NR} = {\sigma_{M} - \frac{M}{N}}}} & (13)\end{matrix}$

equation (11) can be rewritten as:

Ē _(R,M) =E _(R,M) +NRδ _(M)  (11a)

For the special case of R=R₀ (nominal bitrate), and E_(R) ₀ _(,0)=E₀(nominal VBV fullness), equations (9) and (10) become

E _(R) ₀ _(,M) =E ₀ +MR ₀ −ΣM _(ipb) R _(ipb) =E ₀ −NR ₀δ_(M)  (9a)

Ē _(R) ₀ _(,M) =E ₀  (10a)

GOP Level Rate Control Equation

GOP level rate control adjusts the average bitrate R to ensure VBVcompliance, which indirectly results in constant bitrate operation.Essentially it changes R proportionally to the deviation of the actualfrom the expected VBV fullness. (Note that this only guarantees thatthere is no long term drift between VBV and encoder but does not preventtemporary VBV underflow or overflow; this is handled separately). Thecontrol equation is expressed as follows:

Ē _(R) ₀ _(,M+N) _(t) =Ē _(R,M+N) _(t)   (14)

(i.e., the bitrate R is set such that the expected normalized VBVfullness reaches the nominal normalized VBV fullness after N, frames).

The remaining step is to convert (14) into an explicit equation for R.Using (10a) and (10), (14) becomes:

E ₀ =Ē _(R,M) +N _(t)(R ₀ −R)  (14a)

Substituting (9a), (10a), and (11a) into (14a) results in:

E _(R) ₀ _(,M) +NR ₀δ_(M) =E _(R,M) +NRδ _(M) +N _(t)(R ₀ −R)  (14b)

Solving (14b) for R:

$\begin{matrix}{R = {R_{0} + \frac{E_{R,M} - E_{R_{0},M}}{N_{t} - {N\; \delta_{M}}}}} & (15)\end{matrix}$

As expected, the rate is adjusted proportionally to the differencebetween current and expected VBV fullness. The term −Nδ_(M) in thedenominator stems from the conversion from actual to normalized VBVlevels, removing GOP position dependencies from the equation.

Picture Level Bit Allocation

At the GOP level the bit allocation for pictures is determined by (4).As discussed below, the complexities X used in this equation are aposteriori estimates optimized to provide an accurate long term estimateof the bitrate versus mquant relationship.

Bit allocation for the current picture is improved by using a prioriknowledge of its statistical properties provided by the motionestimator. In addition, picture level bit allocation is responsible forpreventing VBV underflows.

Picture level bit allocation models the relationship between the targetmquant for the current picture, d, and target bit allocation for thecurrent picture, T, by an equation similar to (3):

$\begin{matrix}{T = {K_{ipb}{\hat{X}}^{\prime}\frac{1}{d}}} & ( {3a} )\end{matrix}$

where {circumflex over (X)}′ is the a priori knowledge based normalizedcomplexity of the current frame. Computation of {circumflex over (X)}′is discussed below (cf. equation (32)), it is based on L1 distances forthe individual macroblocks, and local complexity estimates for intra andnon-intra macroblocks.

Having two different estimates for the complexity of the current frame({circumflex over (X)}_(ipb)′, the ‘typical’ complexity derived as along-term average based on posteriori knowledge about previously codedframes, and {circumflex over (X)}′, the ‘actual’ complexity based on apriori knowledge about the current, not yet encoded frame) leads to avariety of possible bit allocation schemes for the current frame. Thetwo corner cases are as follow:

-   -   mquant preserving mode: use the mquant as determined by GOP        level rate control

$( {{d = \frac{K_{ipb}}{c}},} $

cf. (2)); the resulting number of bits may not match the numberpredicted by GOP level rate control; this mode keeps quality constantbut may cause significant spikes in the allocation for frames that aremore complex than anticipated at the GOP level

-   -   bitrate preserving mode: try to encode the frame with a number        of bits as close as possible to the number of bits allocated at        the GOP level by adjusting the value of mquant; this mode        results in higher stability (no unpredicted excursions in the        VBV level), but may result in very large mquant values at scene        changes (resulting in noticeable blockiness) and unnecessarily        low mquant values for repeated frames (large mquant fluctuations        for 3:2 pulldown material)

These corner cases, and all the intermediate ones, can be describedusing the notion of an effective complexity X″ in (4) as follows:

T=cX″  (4a)

Mquant preserving mode corresponds to setting X″={circumflex over (X)}′,while bitrate preserving mode corresponds to X″={circumflex over(X)}_(ipb)′.

One embodiment of the invention uses the following equation to determinethe effective complexity X″:

$\begin{matrix}{X^{''} = \{ \begin{matrix}X_{I}^{\prime} & {{scene}\mspace{14mu} {change}} \\{\min \{ {\frac{X_{ipb}^{\prime} + {\hat{X}}^{\prime}}{2},{\hat{X}}^{\prime}} } & {otherwise}\end{matrix} } & (16)\end{matrix}$

In (16), X_(I)′ is the normalized complexity of I frames, X_(ipb)′ isthe normalized complexity of frames of the type of the current frame(these are the same complexities as used by the GOP level rate control),and {circumflex over (X)}′ is the a priori knowledge based normalizedcomplexity of the current frame.

By default (16) uses the average of {circumflex over (X)}′ and X_(ipb)′to achieve a compromise between the constant quality of mquantpreserving mode and the higher stability of bitrate preserving mode. Thedefault mode of (16) is augmented by several experimentally determinedheuristics that improve behavior at certain highly non-stationary eventsas follow:

-   -   repeated frames (including dropped frames and 3:2 pulldown)    -   scene changes

Repeated frames coded as P or B pictures tend to have very lowcomplexity since they can be very accurately predicted from theirreference frame(s). With default mode bit allocation, too many bits areallocated to these frames, and mquant drops to a very low value. Toavoid this behavior, (16) uses the minimum of {circumflex over (X)}′ andthe average of {circumflex over (X)}′ and X_(ipb)′. Whenever the (apriori) actual complexity of the current frame is lower than the longterm average complexity, (16) goes into mquant preserving mode, reducingthe number of allocated bits below the one predicted at the GOP level.

P and B frames across scene changes are mostly coded using intramacroblocks and their encoding behaves similarly to that of I frames.Their complexity is usually much higher than that of regular P and Bframes. The default mode underestimates the complexity of such a frameand therefore causes allocation of too few bits at an undesirably highmquant. On the other hand, choosing the obvious alternative, mquantpreserving mode, can lead to extremely high bit allocation. This happenson scene changes from a low complexity to a high complexity scenebecause mquant then is still based on complexity values from theprevious scene. Instead, (16) uses X_(I)′, the I frame complexity. Thisprovides improved performance based on the following:

-   1. P and B frames across a scene change behave like an I frame    (mostly intra coded macroblocks)    -   2. as discussed below, X_(I)′ is adjusted for every picture (not        just for I frames) based on the L1 variance of the current        frame, and therefore already takes the changed complexity of the        new scene into account

Experiments have confirmed that explicitly using the I frame complexityX_(I)′ at scene changes results in an allocation that avoids huge mquantspikes and also avoids bit allocations that are much higher than the Iframe bit allocation. Only if scene changes are not properly detected(which happens when they occur immediately before an I frame) B framesare encoded with higher than optimal mquant.

VBV Compliance

Using the target bit allocation T given in equation (4) results in abitstream that has constant average bitrate R₀, but does not guaranteeVBV compliance, i.e. occasional VBV underflows or overflow may occur.Therefore, T is adjusted based on the restrictions imposed by the VBVmodel:

T′=min{T,T _(min)}

T″=f _(lim)(T′,T _(max))  (17)

T_(min) is a lower boundary for the number of bits required to avoid VBVoverflow:

T _(min) =┌R ₀−(vbv_buffer_size−E _(R,M))┐  (18)

Here R₀ is the nominal bitrate, vbv_buffer_size the value encoded in thesequence header, and E_(R,M) the VBV fullness before encoding thecurrent frame. f_(lim) is a soft limiter defined by the followingequation:

$\begin{matrix}{{f_{\lim}( {x,x_{\max}} )} = \{ \begin{matrix}x & {x < \frac{x_{\max}}{2}} \\{\frac{x_{\max}}{2} + \frac{( {x - \frac{x_{\max}}{2}} )\frac{x_{\max}}{2}}{x}} & {x \geq \frac{x_{\max}}{2}}\end{matrix} } & (19)\end{matrix}$

For large x, this function asymptotically converges to x_(max). Thefinal value for the target mquant is obtained by inserting T″ in (3a):

$\begin{matrix}{d^{''} = {K_{ipb}\frac{{\hat{X}}^{\prime}}{T^{''}}}} & ( {3b} )\end{matrix}$

Macroblock Level Rate Control

Based on the target mquant d″, macroblock level rate control determinesthe actual mquant for each macroblock in the picture taking thefollowing aspects into account:

-   -   psychovisual masking by local activity modulation    -   adaptation of mquant to meet target bit allocation (T″) by using        feedback    -   support of fractional mquant values by using dithering

Psychovisual Masking

A preprocessing stage computes the relative local activity act_(mb) ofevery macroblock as

$\begin{matrix}{{{\overset{\_}{u}( {{mb},b} )} = {\frac{1}{64}{\sum\limits_{i,{j = 0}}^{7}\; {u_{i,j}( {{mb},b} )}}}}{{act}_{mb}^{\prime} = {\min\limits_{b = {0\mspace{14mu} \ldots \mspace{14mu} 3}}{\sum\limits_{i,{j = 0}}^{7}{{{u_{i,j}( {{mb},b} )} - {\overset{\_}{u}( {{mb},b} )}}}}}}{\overset{\_}{{act}^{\prime}} = {\frac{1}{n_{mb}}{\sum\limits_{{mb} = 0}^{n_{mb} - 1}\; {act}_{mb}^{\prime}}}}{{act}_{mb} = \frac{{act}_{mb}^{\prime}}{\overset{\_}{{act}^{\prime}}}}} & (20)\end{matrix}$

Here u_(i,j)(mb,b) is the pixel value of the i,j-th pixel in block b ofmacroblock mb, ū(mb,b) is the average pixel value of block b ofmacroblock mb, act_(mb)′ is the activity of macroblock mb, act′ is theaverage activity of the picture, act_(mb) is the relative activity ofmacroblock mb, and n_(mb) is the total number of macroblocks in thepicture.

The relative activity is mapped to an activity scaling factor α_(act,mb)using the following non-linear relation:

$\begin{matrix}{\alpha_{{act},{mb}} = \frac{{m_{act} \cdot {act}_{mb}} + 1}{{act}_{mb} + m_{act}}} & (21)\end{matrix}$

The parameter m_(act) determines the degree of activity modulation.mquant is multiplied with this scaling factor:

mquant_(mb)′=α_(act,mb) d″  (22)

where d″ is the value from (3b).

Macroblock Level Control Loop

In order to reduce the mismatch between the target bit allocation T″ andthe actual number of bits generated for the current image, which iscaused by the limited accuracy of the complexity model (3), a controlloop adjusts mquant at the macroblock level based on the accumulatedmismatch from the start of the picture up the current macroblock. Thisimproves the rate control stability. Too strong feedback, however, canresult in large spatial variations of mquant due to local complexitychanges in the image. The following control equation is used:

mquant_(mb) ″=mquant_(mb) ′+kmb·(S _(mb) −Ŝ _(mb))  (23)

S_(mb) is the number of generated bits up to, but not including,macroblock number mb. Ŝ_(mb) is the expected value of the same quantity.It is calculated as:

$\begin{matrix}{{\hat{S}}_{mb} = {\frac{1}{d^{''}}{\sum\limits_{n = 0}^{{mb} - 1}\; {\hat{X}}_{n}}}} & (24)\end{matrix}$

where {circumflex over (X)}_(n) is the estimated macroblock complexityof the n-th macroblock (cf. equation (33)). kmb determines the loop gainof the first order loop. It is related to nmb, the number of macroblocksthe (linearized) system requires to reduce a mismatch to 1/e of itsoriginal value (‘time constant’ of the control loop) as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{{kmb} = \frac{d^{''}n_{mb}}{T^{''}{nmb}}} & (25)\end{matrix}$

Fractional Mquant Support

The target mquant, d″, is a real valued number, while the actual mquantused by the encoder is an integer. For small mquant, rounding d″ to thenearest integer can result in a significant mismatch in the generatednumber of bits. Usually, this mismatch is compensated by the macroblocklevel control loop. If the latter is deactivated (kmb=0), the mquantvalues are dithered to approximate the real valued target value onaverage. A simple, one-dimensional, 1 tap error diffusion filter is usedfor this purpose.

Parameter Estimation

This section describes how various parameters used in the rate controlalgorithm are estimated from the actual content of the video sequencebeing encoded.

Global Complexities

X_(ipb), introduced in (3), is estimated from the relationship betweenmquant and generated number of bits of previously encoded pictures. Atthe end of each frame, the frame complexity {tilde over (X)} of thisframe is calculated as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{\overset{\sim}{X} = \{ \begin{matrix}{{S \cdot d^{''}}\frac{n_{mb}}{n_{{valid},{mb}}}} & {n_{{valid},{mb}} > 0} \\0 & {n_{{valid},{mb}} = 0}\end{matrix} } & (26)\end{matrix}$

S is the number of bits generated for the frame, d″ is the target mquantfrom (3b), n_(mb) is the total number of macroblocks in the frame,n_(valid,mb) is the number of macroblocks in the frame not encoded in‘emergency quantization mode’. Emergency quantization mode is entered ifthe number of bits in a partially encoded frame exceeds a threshold thatindicates potential VBV buffer underflow. In this mode almost no bitsare generated for the remaining macroblocks (only DC/(0,0) coefficientsare encoded), independently of d″.

For P and B frames, {tilde over (X)} can vary noticeably from frame toframe. It is highly dependent on the efficiency of motion compensation,which in turn depends on the scene content. To reduce the effect ofcontent dependency, a scene-change adaptive low-pass filter is appliedto {tilde over (X)} to produce X_(ipb):

X _(ipb,k)=(1−α_(sc,ipb))X _(ipb,k-1)+α_(sc,ipb) {tilde over (X)}, foripb=P,B  (27)

k denotes sequential numbers for frames of the same type. α_(sc,ipb)depends on the picture type (P or B) and whether or not a scene changewas detected. α_(sc,ipb) is set according to the following table:

no scene scene α_(sc, ipb) change change P 0.75 0.5 B 0.5 0.25

The same scheme could be applied to I frames as well. There are twodrawbacks, however. First of all, the current scene detection schemedoes not work for I frames (it is based on the intra vs. non-intramacroblock ratio). This would result in a non-adaptive α with a valueclose to 1.0. Secondly, I frames can be spaced considerably far apart(e.g. 15 frames) resulting in long intervals without new estimates forX_(I). This is undesirable because X_(I) not only affects bit allocationfor I frames but indirectly also the allocation of P and B frames (i.e.an increased X_(I) reduces the number bits allocated to P and B framesin anticipation of higher allocation requirements for the next I frame).Therefore an updated X_(I) is provided for every frame. To this end, theglobal I frame complexity is modeled as

X _(I) =X ₀ −P _(intra)  (28)

where X₀ is a constant and P_(intra) is the total intra energy (orpower) of the frame. P_(intra) is calculated as

$\begin{matrix}{P_{intra} = {\sum\limits_{{mb} = 0}^{n_{mb} - 1}\; p_{{intra},{mb}}}} & (29)\end{matrix}$

p_(intra,mb) is the intra energy of macroblock number mb as defined in(34) below. Note that p_(intra,mb) is calculated at the same time asact_(mb)′ (cf. (20)) without significant additional computationaloverhead.

An estimate for X₀ is obtained from the most recent I frame k:

$\begin{matrix}{{\hat{X}}_{0,k} = \frac{{\overset{\sim}{X}}_{k}}{P_{{intra},k}}} & (30)\end{matrix}$

with {tilde over (X)} from (26) and P_(intra) from (29). The index kdenotes that these values are those of the k-th I frame. For all framesm between the k-th (inclusive) and k+1-th (exclusive) I frame, X_(I,m)is calculated from (28):

X _(I,m) ={circumflex over (X)} _(0,k) ·P _(intra,m)  (31)

A-Priori Complexity

The normalized a-priori complexity for the current frame {circumflexover (X)}′ used in (3a) ff. is obtained from a-priori knowledge of thecurrent frame before actually encoding it, in contrast to the‘a-posteriori’ global complexity described in the previous section whichis derived from values available only after actually encoding the frame.

$\begin{matrix}{{\hat{X}}^{\prime} = {\frac{1}{K_{ipb}}{\sum\limits_{{mb} = 0}^{n_{mb} - 1}{\hat{X}}_{mb}}}} & (32)\end{matrix}$

{circumflex over (X)}_(mb) is a macroblock complexity estimate whichdepends on the coding type of the macroblock:

$\begin{matrix}{{\hat{X}}_{mb} = \{ \begin{matrix}\frac{x_{intra}p_{{intra},{mb}}}{\alpha_{{act},{mb}}} & {{intra}\mspace{14mu} {coded}\mspace{14mu} {macroblocks}\mspace{14mu} ( {I,P,B} )} \\\frac{x_{nonintra}p_{{zeromv},{mb}}}{\alpha_{{act},{mb}}} & {{zero}\mspace{14mu} {motionvector}\mspace{20mu} {macroblocks}\mspace{14mu} (P)} \\\frac{x_{{nonintra},p}p_{{nonintra},{mb}}}{\alpha_{{act},{mb}}} & {{non}\text{-}{intra}\mspace{14mu} {coded}\mspace{14mu} {macroblocks}\mspace{14mu} (P)} \\\frac{x_{{nonintra},b}p_{{nonintra},{mb}}}{\alpha_{{act},{mb}}} & {{non}\text{-}{intra}\mspace{14mu} {coded}\mspace{14mu} {macroblocks}\mspace{14mu} (B)}\end{matrix} } & (33)\end{matrix}$

α_(act,mb) from (21) in the denominator of (33) accounts for the mquantmodulation in (22). x_(intra), x_(nonintra,p) and x_(nonintra,b) are themacroblock complexities for intra coded macroblocks, non-intra codedmacroblocks in P frames, and non-intra coded macroblocks in B frames,respectively. p_(intra,mb), p_(zeromv,mb) and p_(nonintra,mb) are themacroblock energies (or power) of intra coded, zero-motion vector coded,and non-intra coded macroblocks, respectively:

$\begin{matrix}{{p_{{intra},{mb}} = {\sum\limits_{b = 0}^{3}\; {\sum\limits_{i,{j = 0}}^{7}\; {{{u_{i,j}( {{mb},b} )} - {\overset{\_}{u}( {{mb},b} )}}}}}}{p_{{zeromv},{mb}} = {\sum\limits_{b = 0}^{3}\; {\sum\limits_{i,{j = 0}}^{7}\; {{v_{0,i,j}( {{mb},b} )}}}}}{p_{{nonintra},{mb}} = {\sum\limits_{b = 0}^{3}\; {\sum\limits_{i,{j = 0}}^{7}\; {{v_{i,j}( {{mb},b} )}}}}}} & (34)\end{matrix}$

Here u_(i,j)(mb,b), v_(0,i,j)(mb,b), and v_(i,j)(mb,b) are the pixelvalue, the zero motion vector prediction error, and themotion-compensated prediction error of the i,j-th pixel in block b ofmacroblock mb, respectively. ū(mb,b) is the average pixel value of blockb of macroblock mb, defined in (20).

Intra/Non-Intra Macroblock Complexities

x_(intra), x_(nonintra,p) an x_(nonintra,b) are a-posteriori estimatesof the complexity of macroblocks of a particular type. They differ fromthe global complexities by being normalized with the macroblock energy(similar to X₀ in (30), but at the macroblock level). The underlyingmodel for the number of bits generated for the current macroblock,s_(mb), is:

$\begin{matrix}{s_{mb} = \frac{x \cdot p_{mb}}{{mquant}_{mb}^{''}}} & (35)\end{matrix}$

with x and p chosen according to the current macroblock coding type andpicture type.

Estimates for x_(intra), x_(nonintra,p) and x_(nonintra,b) are obtainedfrom previous macroblocks of the same type.

$\begin{matrix}{{{x = \frac{{\overset{\_}{s}}_{n}}{{\overset{\_}{p}}_{n}}},{with}}{{\overset{\_}{s}}_{n} = {{( {1 - \alpha_{x}} ){\overset{\_}{s}}_{n - 1}} + {\alpha_{x}( {s_{mb} + s_{0}} )}}}{{\overset{\_}{p}}_{n} = {{( {1 - \alpha_{x}} ){\overset{\_}{p}}_{n - 1}} + {\alpha_{x}( {\frac{p_{mb}}{{mquant}_{mb}^{''}} + p_{0}} )}}}} & (36)\end{matrix}$

Equation (36) is evaluated independently for all 3 variants of x (intra,nonintra,p, nonintra,b). s _(n) and p _(n) are updated whenever amacroblock of matching type has been encoded (skipped macroblocks areexcluded). x is recalculated before starting a new picture. α_(x)determines the amount of low-pass filtering. It is preferably set to10⁻³. s₀ and p₀ are constants that stabilize x in case of lowbitrate/low energy macroblocks. For x_(intra), s₀ is preferably set to75, and p₀ is preferably set to 50, otherwise s₀ is preferably set to50, and p₀ is preferably set to 25. This results in asymptotic values of1.5 for x_(intra), and of 2.0 for x_(nonintra,p) and x_(nonintra,b).These constants have been determined by experiment. Thus, other valuesmay be substituted, if desired, to obtain other results.

It should be understood that the implementation of other variations andmodifications of the invention in its various aspects will be apparentto those of ordinary skill in the art, and that the invention is notlimited by the specific embodiments described. For example, the specifictype of stream being encoded may be varied. As another example, variousaspects of the invention may be implemented without implementing otheraspects. It is therefore contemplated to cover by the present invention,any and all modifications, variations, or equivalents that fall withinthe spirit and scope of the basic underlying principles disclosed andclaimed herein.

What is claimed is:
 1. Apparatus for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder comprising: apreprocessing stage for determining a power value based on pixel valuesof only a first frame; and a group-of-pictures-level rate control blockoperatively coupled to the preprocessing stage to receive the powervalue and to provide a target quantizer step size used to provide ratecontrol for the video encoder; wherein the group-of-pictures-level ratecontrol block causes an adjustment of sizes of non-intra frames based onexpected sizes of future intra frames.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1wherein the preprocessing stage updates the power value for eachsubsequent picture being encoded.
 3. Apparatus for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder comprising: aprediction error image block to determine L1 distances according to sumsof absolute differences; a picture-level rate control block operativelycoupled to the prediction error image block to receive the L1 distancesand to produce a target quantizer step size for a pixel block; and acomplexity estimator block operatively coupled to the prediction errorimage block to determine non-intra pixel block complexity values andintra pixel block complexity values.
 4. A method for rate control for aconstant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encoder comprising: obtaininga prediction error frame including a plurality of pixel-level errorvalues; calculating a sum of absolute values of the pixel-level errorvalues for a pixel block; calculating an expected number of bits for thepixel block based on the sum of the absolute values, and using theexpected number of bits for the pixel block to obtain constant-bit-ratevideo encoding.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein using the expectednumber of bits for the pixel block to obtain constant-bit-rate videoencoding further comprises: calculating an expected number of bits for aframe in which the pixel block is located; and using the expected numberof bits for the frame to obtain constant-bit-rate video encoding.
 6. Themethod of claim 5 wherein calculating the expected number of bits forthe frame further comprises: summing the expected number of bits for thepixel block for all pixel blocks in the frame.
 7. A method for ratecontrol for a constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-size video encodercomprising the: predicting a relationship between a quantizer scalefactor and a number of encoded bits of a pixel block based on a knownrelationship in previous pixel blocks of a same type; and using thequantizer scale factor to control a pixel block level rate of the videoencoder.
 8. The method of claim 7 wherein using the quantizer scalefactor to control the pixel block level rate of the video encoderfurther comprises: using the quantizer scale factor together with a sumof absolute values of pixel-level error values to control the pixelblock level rate of the video encoder.
 9. The method of claim 7 whereinpredicting the relationship between the quantizer scale factor and thenumber of encoded bits of the pixel block further comprises: predictinga first relationship between the quantizer scale factor and a firstnumber of encoded bits of a first type of pixel block based on a firstknown relationship in previous pixel blocks of the first type; andpredicting a second relationship between the quantizer scale factor anda second number of encoded bits of a second type of pixel block based ona second known relationship in previous pixel blocks of the second type.10. A method for rate control for a constant-bit-rate finite-buffer-sizevideo encoder comprising: calculating a prediction for a number of bitsencoded for a pixel block based on a sum of absolute values ofpixel-level error values, a pixel block complexity, and a quantizerscale factor; using the prediction for adjusting the quantizer scalefactor to meet a targeted picture-level number of bits.